Later, metal type required even copy blocks to allow `lock up' into page form. (The opposite of justified text is ragged text.)

Justification is the result of setting ragged lines and sharing any end-of-line space equally between the words in that line. Hence, in justified setting the word spaces width varies from line-to-line.

All page assembly and drawing programs have an options dialogue box(es) to enable typesetters to have precise control of the variables impacting on justification. The major dialogue box options related to justification allow adjustments to hyphenation and spacebands (word spaces).

Hyphenation options
Of the two major variables to be considered when performing justification routines, the first is the where and how of end-of-line decisions. The hyphenation zone determines the distance from the full line measure at which words can be hyphenated. In addition, another field controls the number of consecutive hyphens in a paragraph. A further dialogue box (or radio buttons) may also need to be accessed in order to determine the method of hyphenation, i.e. algorithm, dictionary, or manual. The algorithm option heeds the strict rules of English that are to be applied when hyphenating words. Given that the rules of grammar are complex, this option should be used with caution.

Spaceband options
The next consideration relates to the spaceband and set-width values set-up in the word and letter spacing dialogue fields which are usually accessed through the paragraph option. Here, three word space fields—minimum, desired, maximum—are input (as a percentage). The word spacing uses the desired spacing, overridden by the minimum and maximum range values depending on the word-fit for each line.

Space between lines
To improve the ease with which text can be read, i.e., legibility, the amount of extra space placed between each line in a setting must be varied according to the line length and character of the type face being used. For example, a light type with a small x-height, or a medium type with a large x-height, would need to be treated quite differently.

A suggestion in this matter is to have space equal to the depth of the lower case 't' between the lines. Most settings will always benefit with the addition of extra line space. A good rule-of-thumb is to add an extra 20% line space to the type face size being used.

Generally, the longer the line, the more space that is required. This is certainly the case when deciding the line spacing of sans serif type faces and for paragraphs set in a bold face. Capitals need more space between lines than lower case. The x-height, type face, weight, and leading make the type easy or very hard to read; consequently, decisions regarding type face and line spacing are very important in all forms of printing.

Space between words
To further improve on legibility, word spacing can also be controlled, but again too much or too little space can affect the ease with which the paragraph can be read. As you might expect, word spacing is affected by the style of type face chosen together with the particular situation for its use. Condensed type faces do not require as much space as expanded faces, and small type sizes read better with a little extra word spacing. As a general guide, the ideal word space represents the width of the lower case 'e' in the type face being used.

With the taste for narrow spacing still growing, some authorities suggest that the ideal word space is the width of the lower case 'i' in the type being used. For this width to be practical however, there is a need to reduce the set-width of the font being used.

Space between groups
In display composition, correct spacing between groups can affect the appearance and readability of type matter. In this situation, the wishes of the person designing the job will govern the amount of space to be used.

Variety is a very important principle in spacing, just as much as type face selection or type sizes. Uniform space between groups in display setting leads to monotony and as a consequence, an uninteresting appearance.

In spite of the necessity for variety in spacing between groups, it must be achieved only after due consideration of how varying amounts of space are to be placed.

Space is used to separate one thought or section of copy from another, therefore the amount of space should be varied according to how isolated one thought is from another.

The readability of a piece of printed matter can be assisted or marred by the placing of the space between lines or groups.

Display
Display setting is the highest form of punctuation, this is where spacing of groups is applied. For example, if a job was set in solid composition, a comma would indicate a slight pause; a full point a longer pause; a fresh paragraph a new thought; a new chapter an entire change of thought.

In display composition punctuation marks are dropped at ends of lines only — but to serve the purpose, space is placed between lines or groups to the same replacement value of a comma, full point, etc.

Keep to a minimum the number of groups in a job, as the fewer groups in a job, the easier readability is achieved. Most jobs require no more than three groups.

To express these ideas in a simple way, we place space between lines or groups of equal in value to the degree of punctuation that would be otherwise used if the setting were solid, i.e. small space for comma, large space for full point, etc. The space is much more discernible than the punctuation mark.

In addition, in display we emphasise items according to their importance by the use of larger or bolder type faces. It is a good idea to refrain from excessive space which causes detachment of units, as too many points of interest in a printed piece cause difficulty in reading.

However carefully the arrangement of solidly set text matter may have been planned, with reference to type size and measure for example, and however carefully that matter is subsequently set, it can almost always be made even more readable by sensible leading.

The amount of leading in a given piece of text setting is usually decided by one or more of the following:

• The nature of the work;
• The design of the particular type face;
• The body size of the type;
• The x-height of the type;
• The weight and colour of the type; and,
• The measure to which the type is set.

Rules
The rule line (often, but not always, aligning at the baseline) is used extensively for horizontal ruling, including underscoring (which should be discouraged), vertical rules for design impact, to separate columns of text and for simple and convenient borders surrounding newspaper display advertisements.

Perhaps the thinnest possible line that can be printed is the Hairline. Care should be used in applying hairlines, and the printing requirements should be considered since such effects as reverse or overprint could present problems.

Aligning type with rules
When rules and type are used in combination in the same line it is important that the rule should line-up with the baseline of the type face.

First line incorrect; second line correct.

The first of these is letter spacing. Inconsistencies of letter spacing may go unnoticed in text types, but they are very obvious and disturbing in the display sizes.

Many situations result in letter combinations that do not look right together, particularly when using capital letters. One obvious way to overcome this problem is to kern certain letter combinations. Kerning is the adjustment of space between two letter combinations.

Letter spacing of italic and roman.

Most program applications automatically take this into account. However, even this might not be sufficient and letter spacing will need to be done.

In setting lower case type, you will find that the letters are designed to fit together properly in any combination, giving the word a compact shape. When letter spacing is introduced, it weakens the shape of the word and reduces legibility. So avoid letter spacing lower case letters. Words set in all caps, on the other hand, often have inconsistent letter spacing which must be corrected.

Letter spacing should be used properly.

Avoid a large amount of letter spacing with condensed letters. These letter styles are specifically designed to be set close together and will appear strange and unappealing if set too far apart.

Since reducing the amount of space between the letters may not be desirable, we must consider the space between closer letters in order to make them consistent with the letters that are further apart.

The pecularities of the capital letters make them broadly divisible into three groups with regard to the requirements of letter spacing. These groupings will assist you in deciding which letters may/may not require extra space.

Grouping for spacing of capital letters.

Remember, as you increase letter spacing, you may also have to increase the word spacing so words do not run together.

Vertical setting of lines
Occasionally, display lines are set vertically. If it is appropriate to treat an unimportant line or lines in this way (important lines should not be treated so) it makes for easier comprehension and a much cleaner and therefore stronger pattern if the line is set normally and then placed on one or other of its ends and not set with the letters the right way up, and one below the other, e.g. Hotel signs.

Apart from these advantages, the normal line setting placed on one or other of its ends, that is, with the feet of the letters facing left to right, will practically always occupy less depth, and where M's and W's occur, less width, than the setting with letters placed the normal way up one below the other.

The em dash (or em rule) is typically used to indicate a sudden break or an abrupt change in thought. It is a punctuation mark! Grammatically it is stronger than a comma but weaker than a period (full stop) and is often used as a replacement to the parentheses in setting off supportive text. Classical book style calls for a thin space on either side of the em dash. Some authorities suggest that there be no space on either side of an em dash although this form of setting will cause problems with an applications’ spell check.

A problem that sometimes occurs when using the em dash relates to the visual length of the dash in proportion to the set-width of type. In some cases, when the em dash appears too long for the setting, it can be shortened by highlighting the character and reducing the width to as little as 75% by using the font character features within page make-up applications.

If a line breaks in the vicinity of an em dash, you want the dash to fall at the end of a line rather than at the beginning of the next one. A kerned fixed space after the dash will help the line break there automatically.

En dash
En dashes (or en rules) are often overlooked in much of today’s typesetting. Often, it is simply sheer ignorance of the character’s existence that its substitution by a hyphen becomes commonplace.

The en dash is used with numbers, spans, or ranges. For example, an inclusive range of numbers, such as ‘1900 to 1994’. Similarly, it is also used in place of the hyphen if one element consists of a range of words.

Melbourne–Sydney–Brisbane flight.
24–28 Dawson Street, Brunswick